What did politics and the Cold War have to do with the space race? On the flip side, how did the Apollo program and landing on the Moon impact us here on Earth? Neil deGrasse Tyson, Cosmos host and the author of Space Chronicles: Facing the Ultimate Frontier, answers fan-submitted questions chosen by co-host Chuck Nice about the Apollo program, landing on the Moon, and so much more.

Explore whether John F. Kennedy's role in pushing for a lunar landing was more important than the geopolitical realities of the Cold War with the Soviet Union. Neil explains how going to the Moon influenced our relationship with our home planet, coinciding with the first Earth Day, the passing of the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts, the founding of NOAA and the EPA, the banning of DDT and leaded gasoline.

Discover how comparing samples of lunar soil and minerals to terrestrial samples helped us discover that the Moon is the result of a collision by a Mars-sized protoplanet with Earth's crust.

Neil and Chuck also discuss conspiracy theorists who deny that we've even landed on the Moon, and the reported incident where Buzz Aldrin punched a denier in the face.

You'll hear whether Neil feels we could have better spent some of the money for the Apollo program on other types of space exploration, and also who he thinks “won” the space race.

Plus, you'll learn about plans to mine the Moon for Helium-3, and find out what cosmic event Neil would want to witness if he could travel back in time.

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Something very odd is going on around Pluto. According to NASA scientists, the New Horizons' flyby of the former ninth planet has revealed an enigma: the icy world that orbits some 3.6 billion miles from the sun appears to be emitting x-rays—high energy radiation associated with gases with temperatures of a million degrees. That makes Pluto the furthest known x-ray source in our solar system. 

"We've just detected, for the first time, X-rays coming from an object in our Kuiper Belt, and learned that Pluto is interacting with the solar wind in an unexpected and energetic fashion," said Carey Lisse, an astrophysicist at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) who led the Chandra observation team with APL colleague and New Horizons Co-Investigator Ralph McNutt. “We can expect other large Kuiper Belt objects to be doing the same."

"Before our observations, scientists thought it was highly unlikely that we'd detect X-rays from Pluto," added astronomer Scott Wolk.

NASA's New Horizons spacecraft flew by Pluto in 2014 and 2015, the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, imaged Pluto. No known objects in our solar system beyond Saturn emit x-rays. A cold, rocky, and non-magnetic body like Pluto shouldn't normally create X-rays, but it might be able to do so in interaction with the charged particles of the solar wind, except for the fact that there doesn't appear to be enough solar wind to create X-rays as bright as the ones Chandra detected.

While NASA's New Horizons spacecraft was speeding toward and beyond Pluto, Chandra was aimed several times on the dwarf planet and its moons, gathering data on Pluto that the missions could compare after the flyby. Each time Chandra pointed at Pluto four times in all, from February 2014 through August 2015 it detected low-energy X-rays from the small planet.

Pluto is the largest object in the Kuiper Belt, a ring or belt containing a vast population of small bodies orbiting the Sun beyond Neptune. The Kuiper belt extends from the orbit of Neptune, at 30 times the distance of Earth from the Sun, to about 50 times the Earth-Sun distance. Pluto's orbit ranges over the same span as the overall Kupier Belt.

The team recently published its findings online in the journal Icarus. The report details what Lisse says was a somewhat surprising detection given that Pluto being cold, rocky and without a magnetic field has no natural mechanism for emitting X-rays.

But Lisse, having also led the team that made the first X-ray detections from a comet two decades ago, knew the interaction between the gases surrounding such planetary bodies and the solar wind the constant streams of charged particles from the sun that speed throughout the solar system -- can create X-rays.

New Horizons scientists were particularly interested in learning more about the interaction between the gases in Pluto's atmosphere and the solar wind. The spacecraft itself carries an instrument designed to measure that activity up-close the aptly named Solar Wind Around Pluto (SWAP) and scientists are using that data to craft a picture of Pluto that contains a very mild, close-in bowshock, where the solar wind first "meets" Pluto (similar to a shock wave that forms ahead of a supersonic aircraft) and a small wake or tail behind the planet.

The immediate mystery is that Chandra's readings on the brightness of the X-rays are much higher than expected from the solar wind interacting with Pluto's atmosphere. 

Dwarf planet Pluto, as seen by NASA's Chandra x-ray telescope below. Dwarf planet Pluto, as seen by the Chandra x-ray telescope. 

"Before our observations, scientists thought it was highly unlikely that we'd detect X-rays from Pluto, causing a strong debate as to whether Chandra should observe it at all," said co-author Scott Wolk, of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge, Mass. "Prior to Pluto, the most distant solar system body with detected X-ray emission was Saturn's rings and disk."

The Chandra detection is especially surprising since New Horizons discovered Pluto's atmosphere was much more stable than the rapidly escaping, "comet-like" atmosphere that many scientists expected before the spacecraft flew past in July 2015. In fact, New Horizons found that Pluto's interaction with the solar wind is much more like the interaction of the solar wind with Mars, than with a comet.

However, although Pluto is releasing enough gas from its atmosphere to make the observed X-rays, in simple models for the intensity of the solar wind at the distance of Pluto, there isn't enough solar wind flowing directly at Pluto to make them.

Lisse and his colleagues who also include SWAP co-investigators David McComas from Princeton University and Heather Elliott from Southwest Research Institute suggest several possibilities for the enhanced X-ray emission from Pluto. These include a much wider and longer tail of gases trailing Pluto than New Horizons detected using its SWAP instrument. Other possibilities are that interplanetary magnetic fields are focusing more particles than expected from the solar wind into the region around Pluto, or the low density of the solar wind in the outer solar system at the distance of Pluto could allow for the formation of a doughnut, or torus, of neutral gas centered around Pluto's orbit.

That the Chandra measurements don't quite match up with New Horizons up-close observations is the benefit and beauty of an opportunity like the New Horizons flyby. "When you have a chance at a once in a lifetime flyby like New Horizons at Pluto, you want to point every piece of glass every telescope on and around Earth at the target," McNutt says. "The measurements come together and give you a much more complete picture you couldn't get at any other time, from anywhere else."

New Horizons has an opportunity to test these findings and shed even more light on this distant region billions of miles from Earth as part of its recently approved extended mission to survey the Kuiper Belt and encounter another smaller Kuiper. It is unlikely to be feasible to detect X-rays from MU69, but Chandra might detect X-rays from other larger and closer objects that New Horizons will observe as it flies through the Kuiper Belt towards MU69. Belt object, 2014 MU69, on Jan. 1, 2019.

The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) in Laurel, Maryland, designed, built, and operates the New Horizons spacecraft and manages the mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, manages the Chandra program for NASA's Science Mission Directorate. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, controls Chandra's science and flight operations.

The Daily Galaxy via chandra.si.edu

Image credit: NASA/CXC/JHUAPL/R.McNutt

Sample the Galaxy's most viewed post during September, from the hotly debated "Mystery Alien Signal" from the Hercules Constellation to the new view of the "Human Quantum Brain." Enjoy!

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Robotic NASA Detective Discovers Planet-Destroying Electric Winds That Suck Oxygen Out of an Atmosphere

Earth's First Nation to Detect Alien Life" --Poised to Flip 'ON' Switch of World's Largest, Most Powerful Radio Telescope

NASA Satellites Orbiting 400 Miles Above Earth Reveal Ancient Buried Egyptian Pyramids

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